Henry Cavendish: The Shy Scientist Essay -- Science, Biography

Why People Refuse To Use Internet Banking Information Technology Essay

Why People Refuse To Use Internet Banking Information Technology Essay Do you think about web based banking in its present state to be secure. You would say, what are the greatest mix-ups that money related administrations suppliers and their clients make that open them to security dangers? The world is changing at a stunning rate and innovation is viewed as the key driver for these progressions around us (Papers4you.com, 2006). An examination of innovation and its uses show that it has pervaded in pretty much every part of our life. Numerous exercises are dealt with electronically due the acknowledgment of data innovation at home just as at work environment. Web can be viewed as a really worldwide marvel that has set aside a few minutes and separation insignificant to numerous exchanges. The change from the customary banking towards e-banking has been a jump change. The development of electronic banking began from the utilization of programmed teller machines (ATM) and has gone through phone banking, direct bill installment, electronic reserve move and the progressive internet banking. The eventual fate of electronic banking as indicated by some is the acknowledgment of WAP empowered banking and intuitive TV banking. Web based banking is the fate of electronic money related exchanges. The ascent in the web based business and the utilization of web in its assistance alongside the upgraded online security of exchanges and touchy data has been the center explanations behind the entrance of internet banking in regular day to day existence (Papers4you.com, 2006). As per the most recent authority figures from the Office of National Statistics (ONS, 2006) show that memberships to the web has developed over half from 15 million of every 2000 to 35 million out of 2005 in the UK. It has additionally been evaluated that 60% of the populace in the UK use web in their every day lives. Why individuals won't use web banking? Today, there are as yet numerous web clients who won't do their banking on the web. Their principle explanation behind not doing so is the absence of web based financial security. One reason why they feel shaky about banking on the web is a result of misinformation㠢â‚ ¬Ã¢ ¦.not knowing the right data about web security. An investigation from the University of Michigan by Atul Prakash sees configuration blemishes that numerous web based financial destinations have today. He inferred that they neglect to ensure clients who dont know the nuts and bolts about web security. The examination focussed on configuration imperfections as opposed to genuine programming shortcomings. Web architecture imperfections are choices or suspicions that were made by the web engineers when they planned the web based financial site. For instance, the designers expected that web based financial clients were taught about web security. Truth be told, the inverse is true㠢â‚ ¬Ã¢ ¦.many web based financial clients are uneducated about essential web security. This supposition can be exploited by deceitful programmers. A portion of the structure imperfections of web based financial security are: Having the option to get to the site by utilizing uncertain HTTP, Being diverted to an untrusted site, Low security secret phrase edges and messaging classified information to clients. These are for the most part instances of web composition imperfections that can prompt secret information being spilled! Solid Passwords: As far as client secret key data goes, a considerable lot of the locales engaged with the examination dont require secret word limitations for clients. Having low quality passwords welcome themselves to being uncovered by beast power assaults. The examination likewise noticed that having a solid secret word doesn't ensure against phishing locales and key lumberjacks. Numerous banks see it as only a burden for their clients to compel solid passwords. The online banks guaranteed that by authorizing a three-strikeâ [1]â lockout strategy when mistakenly composing in a secret word makes animal power assaults on low quality passwords ridiculous. In any case, the examination found that in any event, when a three-strike lockout strategy is authorized, it tends to be broken if low quality passwords are permitted. For instance, on the off chance that you utilize a secret word that is frail like secret word, programmers can effectively utilize mechanized assaults to bargain your login. This is along these lines, regardless of whether the online bank implements a three strike arrangement. The plan imperfection here is that online banks have accepted that clients will consistently utilize solid passwords. Online banks must not expect that some online clients comprehend essential web security and authorize the making of solid passwords. Very much structured web based financial locales will uphold solid passwords by utilizing JavaScript [2] to promptly test the passwords quality. On the off chance that the secret key isn't sufficient, the client will quickly be prompted by an on-screen mistake message or a realistic. Snap here to make a secret key and test whether it is a solid secret key. Programmers and gatecrashers have a simpler time making sense of passwords when they are not every now and again changed. You should change your passwords normally, particularly for your web based financial secret word. At the point when you change your secret phrase, the programmers would need to begin once more. Online manages an account with solid secret key security approaches consequently uphold clients to change their passwords occasionally. Normally a secret key creation screen will show up and you will be approached to refresh your secret word twice. You will likewise need to know the old secret key. It is more diligently for programmers to make sense of your secret word on the off chance that you utilize various distinctive characters㠢â‚ ¬Ã¢ ¦ particularly on the off chance that it is a blend of letters, numbers, and images found in your console. Obviously, it will be more diligently for you to recollect the new secret phrase, so you need to ensure you remember the mix. A valuable tip: never use passwords that are codes like your introduction to the world date, companions name, or other pertinent data in light of the fact that your secret key can be derived rapidly and without any problem. These coded passwords are utilized by many individuals, especially in ATM machines and email passwords. By doing this, you essentially make yourself a major objective to programmers. Levels of leadership: The University of Michigan concentrate by Atul Prakash additionally makes reference to sites that break the chain of trust. Regularly time, bank sites will divert you to different sites without notice. These destinations may not be made sure about by utilizing SSL [3] . Commonly the certificatesâ [4]â used are not partnered with the bank at all and it is highly unlikely for the client to tell on the off chance that they are still on the banks site or not. This makes it hard for even learned clients to know whether they are on a phishingâ [5]â site㠢â‚ ¬Ã¢ ¦ or not! Some internet banking locales may introduce secure login alternatives inside an unreliable page. While their web based financial website may offer secure logins by means of SSL and HTTPS [6] , that equivalent page might be accessible shakily through a HTTP [7] version. While redirection to a safe page may happen, if the client had just entered in certification data under the shaky page, at that point their qualifications are in danger of being undermined. While numerous locales displayed 1 or 2 of the prominent imperfections, there were numerous on the rundown that didnt show any blemishes and offered generally excellent security. It additionally proceeded to take note of that a portion of the destinations may have even fixed the imperfections noted in the examination when the investigation was discharged. Web based Banking: Tips for Doing It Safely With the expanding prominence of the Internet as a virtual commercial center, purchasers and lawbreakers the same have benefited from this developing network. Thus the issue of Internet security has gotten one critical, particularly with regards to web based banking. Notwithstanding, safe banking on the web isn't as troublesome as it might appear. It basically includes settling on the correct decisions. Here are a few hints that will help guarantee a sheltered financial encounter on the Internet. Initially, ensure that the bank you pick is real. In the event that they don't have a branch you can visit locally, at that point you wont have the comfort of looking at them face to face. In such cases, it is fitting to peruse relevant data about the bank on its site. Most budgetary establishments will have an About Us tab where you can peruse more data about the bank and its history. You ought to try and have the option to the discover name and address for the banks home office alongside a cost free number you can use to talk with a live individual. Second, know about lawbreakers who set up false sites under a name or web address like that of a trustworthy bank. Sadly, these nuisances have caused some fear with regards to web based banking. In any case, they can be genuinely simple to spot and maintain a strategic distance from. These locales are intended to fool you into entering their site and giving your own data (i.e., standardized savings number, account number, secret word). Be certain you have composed the fitting web address for your bank before getting to your record on the web. This can be handily guaranteed by book denoting your banks website or adding it to your top picks in your internet browser. Doing this essentially promises you will visit the right site later on. Third, defend your private data. Hoodlums couldn't imagine anything better than to take a few to get back some composure of your charge card numbers, banking information, government managed savings number and other private information. Audit your banks security rehearses. This data is normally accessible on their site, however you should likewise be capable contact the bank straightforwardly if essential. Fourth, a safe web based financial website will give encryptionâ [8]â . In this procedure, private data is mixed so as to keep an inappropriate eyes from seeing it. Some internet browsers will show a symbol at the base of your screen that resembles a key or a lock. This symbol demonstrates that your exchange is secure and your private data has been encoded. Programmers and terrible individuals are continually endeavoring to split into our online records and access everything from our email to our internet banking records for loathsome purposes. How might you prevent them from effectively getting to your records? One significant advance

Interesting Facts About the Independence Day

Interesting Facts About the Independence Day 12 Fun Things You Didn’t Know About Independence Day Home›Informative Posts›12 Fun Things You Didn’t Know About Independence Day Informative PostsFor many people, the 4th of July is just another opportunity to relax from their daily work with a couple of cold beers. Poor guys! There’s much more to Independence Day in America, because it’s a very meaningful and interesting holiday, probably one of the most interesting holidays in America.Here are 12 fun facts about the US Independence Day that will surely surprise you:Was Declaration of Independence signed by all representatives of the Thirteen Colonies? No, it was signed only by two people.Was there a president who was born on the 4th of July?  Yes, the 30th president of the US, Calvin Coolidge was born on the 4thof July 1872.What’s the story behind Nathan’s Hot Dog Contest?  According to the legend, four immigrants tried to find out who had stronger patriotic feelings. They have decided to give the title of the winn er to the person who could eat more hot dogs.Initially, the 4th of July was an unpaid federal holiday. When did it become a paid one? 4th of July became a paid federal holiday in 1938Among the five first presidents, three died on the 4th of July. Did you know it? John Adams, James Monroe and Thomas Jefferson died on the 4th of July. Even more surprisingly, Adams and Jefferson died on the same day, when the Independence was celebrated for the 50th time.Do people celebrate the 4th of July in other countries? Yes. Celebrations are held in Norway, Denmark, Sweden and Portugal. Norwegians and Danes celebrate this holiday because many citizens of these countries emigrated to the US in the beginning of the 20th century.What was the first time when fireworks were utilized for the 4th of July celebrations? For the first time, fireworks were used to celebrate the Independence Day in 1777.In what newspaper the Declaration of Independence was printed first? Declaration of Independence was first printed by The Pennsylvania Evening Post.Can you name a country which obtained independence from the US on the 4th of July? The country that obtained independence from the US on the 4th of July in 1946 was the Philippines.Who performed a 4-0 no-hitter on the 4th of July in 1983? Dave Righetti from The New York Yankees’ threw a 4-0 no-hitter on the 4th of July 1983.Thanks to which president the 4th of July was first celebrated in the White House? 4th of July was first celebrated in the White House owing to Thomas Jefferson.What’s the number of people who lived in the Thirteen Colonies upon signing of the Declaration of Independence?  2.5 million lived in the Thirteen Colonies when the Declaration of Independence was signed.Now you’re ready to surprise your family and friends with these fun facts!

What Is a Scientific or Natural Law

A law in science is a generalized rule to explain a body of observations in the form of a verbal or mathematical statement. Scientific laws (also known as natural laws) imply a cause and effect between the observed elements and must always apply under the same conditions. In order to be scientific law, a statement must describe some aspect of the universe and be based on repeated experimental evidence. Scientific laws may be stated in words, but many are expressed as mathematical equations. Laws are widely accepted as true, but new data can lead to changes in a law or to exceptions to the rule. Sometimes laws are found to be true under certain conditions, but not others. For example, Newtons Law of Gravity holds true for most situations, but it breaks down at the sub-atomic level. Scientific Law Versus Scientific Theory Scientific laws do not try to explain why the observed event happens, but only that the event actually occurs the same way over and over. The explanation of how a phenomenon works is a scientific theory. A scientific law and a scientific theory are not the same thing—a theory does not turn into a law or vice versa. Both laws and theories are based on empirical data and are accepted by many or most scientists within the appropriate discipline. For example, Newtons Law of Gravity (17th century) is a mathematical relation that describes how two bodies interact with each other. The law does not explain how gravity works or even what gravity is. The Law of Gravity can be used to make predictions about events and perform calculations. Einsteins Theory of Relativity (20th century) finally started to explain what gravity is and how it works.

Stress among Nurses - 2813 Words

Stress has become such an ingrained part of our vocabulary and daily existence, that it is difficult to believe that our current use of the term originated only a little more than 50 years ago. The term â€Å"stress†, as it is currently used, was coined by Hans Selye in 1936, who defined it as â€Å"the non-specific response of the body to any demand for change† (American Institute of Stress [AIS], 2012). When stress was first studied in the 1950s, the term was used to denote both the causes and the experienced effects of these pressures. More recently, however, the word stressor has been used for the stimulus that provokes a stress response. Stress is particularly acute among people who work in the â€Å"helping profession† (Isikhan, Comez, Danis, 2004; Gilbert Daloz, 2008; Siegrist, Shackelton, Link, 2010) and can have devastating effects on healthcare staff and their work environments (Lambert, Lambert, Yamase, 2003). Depending on the nature, intensity, an d duration of the one’s relationships, stress can have negative effects on both physical and mental health in the work environment. The hospital environment contains a number of factors that are unhealthy and cause suffering in nursing professionals. In fact, the nursing profession is considered one health profession with a high level of occupational stress (Costa Martin, 2011). Problem/Significance Stressful events are an inevitable part of life. Stress is the major factor that nurses have to frequently deal with in theirShow MoreRelatedStress And Burnout Among Nurses2101 Words   |  9 PagesStress and burnout is always a popular issue in journal article, academic books and the press (Jonathan Halbesleben, 2008). Professional burnout is understood as the psychological reaction to chronic work stress as well as globally recognized problem among various specialties of nursing (Maslach, Jackson Leiter, 1996). Burnout has been reported one of the occupational hazards in the work place, which is debilitated to workers, costly to agencies and detrimental to clients (Hayes, 2010). NursingRead MoreThe Effects of Stress Among Female Registered Nurses4470 Words   |  18 PagesINTRODUCTION BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY Prior research has suggested that nurses, regardless of workplace or culture, are confronted with a variety of stressors. As the worldwide nursing shortage increases, the aged population becomes larger, there is an increase in the incidence of chronic illnesses and technology continues to advance, nurses continually will be faced with numerous workplace stressors. Thus, nurses need to learn how to identify their workplace stressors and to cope effectivelyRead MoreConcept Analysis on Stress Among Nurses Essay5023 Words   |  21 PagesKnowledge in Nursing 10.1177/0894318405277527 18:3, July 2005 ARTICLE Unity of Knowledge in the Advancement of Nursing Knowledge Clinical Research Specialist, Philips Medical Systems, Andover, MA Clinical Nurse Specialist, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA Gerontological Nurse Practitioner, Assistant Clinical Professor, MGH Institute of Health Professions, Boston, MA During the past 20 years, we have witnessed an explosion in nursing knowledge providing the discipline with diverse andRead MoreNursing Research: Work Related Stress Among Nurses Essay example2208 Words   |  9 PagesSelye said, â€Å"It is not stress that kills us, it is our reaction to it.† Stress can cause it’s victims to suffer from emotional and physical anguish. If stress occurs for prolonged periods of time with little to no reprieve it can result in serious and sometimes fatal health problems. It is ironic that stress can lead to major health concerns, yet some of the most stressed people are those in the healthcare profession. According to an article from the Nursing Standard, stress is a leading cause ofRead MoreThe Effect Of Job Rotation And Role Stress Among Nurses On Job Satisfaction And Organizational Commitment1748 Words   |  7 PagesChing Sheng Chang, Ying-Ling Shih and Rong-Da Liang in their research article â€Å"Effects Of Job Rotation And Role Stress Among Nurses On Job Satisfaction And Organizational Commitment†, conducted a field study and the purpose of study was to inspect how role stress among nurses could affect their organizational commitment and job satisfaction, and if the job rotation system might encourage nurses to recognize, relate to and share the vision of the organization, it will result in enhancing their job satisfactionRead MoreStress in Nursing Practice780 Words   |  4 PagesStress is a common occurrence in the workplace. In health care in particular, there are high levels of stress which can have a negative impact on the environment, the staff, and ultimately the patients. Nurses are subjected to a great deal of occupational stress which in turn impacts the quality of patient care. Occupational stress can be defined as, â€Å"the destructive physical and emotional response that occurs when the requirements of the job do not match the capabilities or desires of the employee†Read MoreManaging An Overwhelmed Staff995 Words   |  4 Pagesregarding nursing leadership and management is how to help staff manage work complexity and stress. In health care there is an association between the quality of patient care, staff satisfaction and effective nursing leadership. Nursing is constantly evolving and nurses take on a significant level of responsibility with hardly any control of workload or work environment. This leads to high levels of stress amongst nurses. An overwhelmed staff leads to an increased possibility of compromised patient careRead MoreStress For Community Home Health Nurses856 Words   |  4 Pagesdifferent areas of stress for community home health nurses. Importance of the Study This study is important because it will help nurses and supervisors to identify areas that can causes potential burnout among community nurse in the workplace, which in terms can produce stress. In addition, this study is also important because it will analyze and examine different strategies that can be put in place that can prevent mental, physical, and emotional disturbances to nurses as a result of stress. ResearchRead MoreStress Of Nursing Leadership And Management1549 Words   |  7 PagesStress of Nursing Leadership and Management On a daily basis, everyone experiences stress. Stressful situation without making adjustments can effects your health and well-being. For example, I worked as a charge nurse and mostly as a RN supervisor. This job requires to use managerial skills as well as clinical expertise. The work environment of the skilled nursing facility was mostly short staffed, lack of resources, and overloaded. I, as a charge nurse, was expected to always be available, to beRead MoreStress Of Nursing Leadership And Management1267 Words   |  6 PagesStress of Nursing Leadership and Management As a normal part of life, everyone has stress. Stressful situation without making adjustments can effects your health and well-being. For example, I worked as a charge nurse and mostly as a RN supervisor. This job requires to use managerial skills as well as clinical expertise. The work environment of the skilled nursing facility was mostly short staffed, lack of resources, and overloaded. I, as a charge nurse or RN supervisor, was expected to always be

American Literature Before 1865 Free Essays

While the land issue is frequently invoked as the reason behind the extermination of indigenous Americans by European settlers, the real issue was a clash of cultures that held incompatible world views. Among Native Americans (hereafter referred to as â€Å"Indians† for convenience and because this is actually Native peoples’ preferred appellation according to Coeur d’Alene writer Sherman Alexie), society was usually very egalitarian, and even democratic. Europeans on the other hand believed in top-down, societal structures with rigid orders and classes. We will write a custom essay sample on American Literature Before 1865 or any similar topic only for you Order Now Most Indians were hunters and gatherers; this is how they survived, acknowledging game and wild edible plants as gifts of nature. In light of the harsh, puritanical Yahwist world view of the Europeans, it is significant that those in a hunting-gathering society rarely have to work more than five or six hours per week in order to satisfy their basic needs; Euro-Christians were children of a vengeful, patriarchal god who demanded that they earn their bread by the sweat of their brow (unless of course, one was a successful capitalist, in which lower classes would do it on one’s behalf). Their warped belief system demanded that they till the earth; hunting was for sport. Many (not all) Indians found the thought of agriculture as an affront to the earth; if the Great Spirit had provided berries, roots and game animals, why would they scratch open the Great Mother seeking more? Sexuality was another issue; while most Indians embraced it as any normal, healthy life form and exhibited great tolerance for homosexuality and trans-gendered people (some of whom had high status, as was the case of the Cherokee â€Å"Two Spirit†), Europeans were – as many Americans are now – embarrassed, ashamed, intolerant and repressive when it came to sexual matters. Women among many Indian tribes also had a huge degree of freedom and equality with men, which was rigidly denied to European women. Different European groups had very different experiences and problems in encountering and interacting with Indians. In A Briefe and True Report of the New Found Land of Virgina, written in 1587 prior to the mysterious disappearance of the Roanoke Colony, the explorer Harriot – a product of the Elizabethan England of Shakespeare – wrote under the heading Of The Nature and Manners of the People that the Indians â€Å"†¦are not to be feared, â€Å" but warning â€Å"that they shall have cause to feare and love us, that shall inhabite with them† (241). Harriot goes on the describe them in some detail as to their animal-skin clothing, their lack of edged tools and their style of warfare. He writes, â€Å"In respect of us, they are a people poore, and for want of skill and judgement in the knowledge and use of our things, doe esteeme our trifles [toys, coins and cooking tools] before things of greater value† (242). This statement is significant, particularly in light of later experiences of the English in Virginia – experiences that involved great suffering, death and privation. Here, Harriot indulges in typical English chauvinism, judging Indian society and culture by the standards of his own. It should have become obvious over the ensuing twenty years that a lack of technology did not necessarily make for an inferior culture; masters of their environment, the Indians were well able to survive and even thrive in a place where the first English settlers starved, existed in poverty and frequently died. Even Harriot’s statement that â€Å"should they desire our friendship and love, [they will] have the greater respect for pleasing and obeying us† – a clear declaration of intentions to enslave Indians – proved to be based on this faulty logic as future English settlers discovered when they attempted to do just that. Harriot’s description of the local Indian’s religion indicates there were some traits shared with their own Christianity; immortality of the soul, analogues to Heaven and Hell, and even formal worship rituals held in â€Å"houses appropriate or temples† (243). While by no means typical of all Indian spirituality or religion, it was these kinds of similarities that some Catholic missionaries were able to use in their successful conversions elsewhere. With similarities such as described by Harriot, one wonders if some elements of Christianity had not filtered north from Spanish claims in Florida. Alternatively, given the chauvinistic tendencies of Europeans in general and the English in particular that led to so many misunderstandings, it is quite possible that Harriot may have been simply seeing what he expected and/or desired to see. In any event, the English did not hesitate to use the Indian’s own normal fears of the unknown against them for their own advantage. During a drought, local Indians (some of the few who did engage in agriculture, apparently) came to believe their problems had been brought on by their own actions, and offered to play to the â€Å"God of England, that he would preserve their Corne,† offering the English a portion when the harvest came in. Later, when diseases carried by the English were spread to those Indians who had no natural immunity, the English were all too happy to attribute the plague to their vengeful God for their â€Å"wicked practises† (245). In the case of Indians to whom such things had never happened and had no concept of how disease spread through bacteria and viruses, this self-serving explanation on the part of the English was all too acceptable. The Spaniards’ experiences with Indians were as varied as the Indian cultures they encountered. For example, with complex urban societies such as the Aztecs and Incas, the Spaniards were forced to deal with powers that were nearly equal to their own in terms of technology and organization; only through collaborators within these civilizations were leaders like Cortez and Pizzaro able to succeed in their conquests. Further north, the Dine (Navajo) and Zuni presented somewhat less of a challenge. Unlike the English who came for land, the Spaniard’s main objective was plunder; gold, silver, slaves and souls. Unlike the primarily secular English expeditions, the Spaniards operated under the blessings of an aggressive Roman Catholic church, whose tool was the Holy Inquisition (rather different from the â€Å"kinder, gentler† brand of Catholicism brought by French missionaries to Indians further north). The Zuni – linguistically related to the Nez Perce, Yakama, Klamath and Modoc peoples of the Pacific Northwest, yet living in New Mexico – embraced a kind of spirituality that was completely unlike Christianity. There religion was organized into different â€Å"societies,† each of which governed a specific aspect of the community (22). In many ways, Zuni religion resembled that of the ancient Mayans; a â€Å"sun priest† known as a Pekwin kept a calendar; there was also a belief in â€Å"Hero Twins,† hearkening back to the Mayan legends of Hunahpu and Xibalanque. The Hero Twins also appear in the mythology of other Southwest peoples, including the Navajo (34). This and many other aspects of Zuni culture are revealed in their own creation myth, whose relationship with the Spaniards was hostile practically from the beginning; taken as one of the â€Å"Seven Cities of Cibola,† this sedentary, semi-urbanized, agricultural people successful drove off the initial Spaniard invasion in 1540. A Catholic mission was eventually established some ninety years later, but in 1680, the Zuni were in rebellion once again, joining other Pueblo Indians against the Spaniards. Zuni attitudes toward the Spaniards are apparent in a later version on the Zuni creation story, in which the Trickster, or â€Å"mischief-maker,† is associated with Mexicans, or Spaniards. The Trickster is a common figure in nearly all myths in all cultures on the planet; the late Joseph Campbell considered the Trickster as an integral part of the archetype â€Å"mythic journey,† or Hero’s Quest. The purpose of a Trickster was to lead the Hero astray, or attempt to delay or even foil the Quest. Among American Indian cultures, the Trickster could take many forms, but most frequently appeared as a Coyote. While he could be a teacher and frequently force one to confront that which they might not otherwise wish to deal with, Coyote could also be a mischief-maker. Associated Coyote with Mexicans/Spaniards had a negative connotation. In this version of the creation story, Mexicans also emerge later than the Zuni. This is yet another point of significance; like many tribal peoples, their name for themselves translates as â€Å"The People,† with the implication that others are not â€Å"people. † The name Halona-Iriwana, the Zuni pueblo, means â€Å"The Middle Ant Hill of the World,† suggesting that chauvinistic self-centeredness was not unique to the English and Spaniards. It has been suggested that this type of mentality was what allowed the Europeans to decimate the Indian populations; had all Indian peoples been able to unite against the invaders, European settlers might not have been quite as successful. The problem with this idea is in the sheer diversity of Indian peoples, not only in terms of language, but culture and even physical traits. While warfare among American Indian tribes never reached the kind of wholesale slaughter that it did among Europeans, conflict and competition for resources and prestige was still quite common. Cultural diversity may be something to treasure today, but in American history, it has had great – and often tragic – consequences. Works Cited Baird, Forrest E. and Walter Kaufman, eds. From Plato to Derrida, 4th Ed. (Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 1997). How to cite American Literature Before 1865, Essays

Spanish Colonization free essay sample

The  Philippine  islands first came to the attention of Europeans with the Spanish expedition around the world led by Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan in 1521. Magellan landed on the island of Cebu, claiming the lands for Spain and naming them Islas de San Lazaro. He set up friendly relations with some of the local chieftains and converted some of them to Roman Catholicism. However, Magellan was killed by natives, led by a local chief named Lapu-Lapu, who go up against foreign domination. Over the next several decades, other Spanish expeditions were send off to the islands. In 1543, Ruy Lopez de Villalobos led an expedition to the islands and gave the name Las Islas Filipinas (after Philip II of Spain) to the islands of Samar and Leyte. The name would later be given to the entire archipelago. Spanish colonization Permanent Spanish settlement was not established until 1565 when an expedition led by the Conquistadores, Miguel Lopez de Legazpi, arrived in Cebu from Mexico (New Spain). We will write a custom essay sample on Spanish Colonization or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Spanish leadership was soon established over many small independent communities that previously had known no central rule. Six years later, following the defeat of the local Muslim ruler, Rajah Solayman, Legazpi established a capital at Manila, a location that offered the excellent harbor of Manila Bay, a large population, and proximity to the ample food supplies of the central Luzon rice lands. Manila became the center of Spanish government, including military, religious, and commercial activities in the islands. Despite the opposition of the Portuguese, who desired to maintain their monopoly on East Indies trade, the Spanish had secured a foothold in the Philippines, which became their outpost as the Spanish East Indies. The Philippines was administered as a province of New Spain until Mexican independence (1821). Occupation of the islands was accomplished with relatively little bloodshed, partly because most of the population (except the Muslims) offered little armed resistance initially. A significant problem the Spanish faced was the subjugation of the Muslims of Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago. The Muslims, in response to attacks on them from the Spanish and their native allies, raided areas of Luzon and the Visayas that were under Spanish colonial control. The Spanish conducted intermittent military campaigns against the Muslims, but without conclusive results until the middle of the 19th century. Church and state were inseparably linked in Spanish policy, with the state assuming responsibility for religious establishments. One of Spains objectives in colonizing the Philippines was the conversion of the local population to Roman Catholicism. The work of conversion was facilitated by the absence of other organized religions, except for Islam, which predominated in the south. The pageantry of the church had a wide appeal, reinforced by the incorporation of Filipino social customs into religious observances. The eventual outcome was a new Roman Catholic majority of the main Austronesian lowland population, from which the Muslims of Mindanao and the upland tribal peoples of Luzon remained detached and alienated (such as the Ifugaos of the Cordillera region and the Mangyans of Mindoro). At the lower levels of administration, the Spanish built on traditional village organization by co-opting local leaders. This system of indirect rule helped create a Filipino upper class, called the principalia, who had local wealth, high status, and other privileges. This perpetuated an oligarchic system of local control. Among the most significant changes under Spanish rule was that the Filipino idea of communal use and ownership of land was replaced with the concept of private ownership and the conferring of titles on members of the principalia. The Philippines was not profitable as a colony, and a long war with the Dutch in the 17th century and intermittent conflict with the Muslims nearly bankrupted the colonial treasury. Colonial income derived mainly from entrepot trade: The Manila Galleons sailing from Acapulco on the west coast of New Spain brought shipments of silver bullion and minted coin that were exchanged for return cargoes of Chinese goods. There was no direct trade with Spain. The invasion of the Filipinos by Spain did not begin in earnest until 1564, when another expedition from New Spain, commanded by Miguel Lopez de Legaspi, arrived. Permanent  Spanish settlement was not established until 1565 when an expedition led by Miguel Lopez de Legazpi, the first Governor-General of the  Philippines, arrived in Cebu from New Spain. Spanish leadership was soon established over many small independent communities that previously had known no central rule. Six years later, following the defeat of the local Muslim ruler, Legazpi established a capital at Manila, a location that offered the outstanding harbor of Manila Bay, a large population, and closeness to the sufficient food supplies of the central Luzon rice lands. Manila became the center of Spanish civil, military, religious, and commercial activity in the islands. By 1571, when Lopez de Legaspi established the Spanish city of Manila on the site of a Moro town he had conquered the year before, the Spanish grip in the  Philippines  was secure which became their outpost in the East Indies, in spite of the opposition of the Portuguese, who desired to maintain theirmonopoly  on East Asian  trade. The  Philippines  was administered as a province of New Spain (Mexico) until Mexican independence (1821). Manila revolted the attack of the Chinese pirate Limahong in 1574. For centuries before the Spanish arrived the Chinese had  traded  with the Filipinos, but evidently none had settled permanently in the islands until after the conquest. Chinese  trade  and labor were of great importance in the early development of the Spanish colony, but the Chinese came to be feared and hated because of their increasing numbers, and in 1603 the Spanish murdered thousands of them (later, there were lesser massacres of the Chinese). The Spanish governor, made a viceroy in 1589, ruled with the counsel of the powerful royal audiencia. There were frequent uprisings by the Filipinos, who disliked the encomienda system. By the end of the 16th cent. Manila had become a leading commercial center of East Asia, carrying on a prosperous  trade  with China, India, and the East Indies. The  Philippines  supplied some wealth (including gold) to Spain, and the richly loaded galleons plying between the islands and New Spain were often attacked by English freebooters. There was also trouble from other quarters, and the period from 1600 to 1663 was marked by continual wars with the Dutch, who were laying the foundations of their rich empire in the East Indies, and with Moro pirates. One of the most difficult problems the Spanish faced was the defeat of the Moros. Irregular campaigns were conducted against them but without conclusive results until the middle of the 19th century. As the power of the Spanish Empire diminished, the Jesuit orders became more influential in the  Philippines  and obtained great amounts of property. Occupation of the islands was accomplished with relatively little bloodshed, partly because most of the population (except the Muslims) offered little armed battle initially. A significant problem the Spanish faced was the invasion of the Muslims of Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago. The Muslims, in response to attacks on them from the Spanish and their native allies, raided areas of Luzon and the Visayas that were under Spanish colonial control. The Spanish conducted intermittent military campaigns against the Muslims, but without conclusive results until the middle of the 19th century. Church and state were inseparably  linked in  Spanish policy, with the state assuming responsibility for religious establishments. One of Spains objectives in colonizing the  Philippines  was the conversion of Filipinos to Catholicism. The work of conversion was facilitated by the absence of other organized religions, except for Islam, which predominated in the south. The pageantry of the church had a wide plea, reinforced by the incorporation of Filipino social customs into religious observances. The eventual outcome was a new Christian majority of the main Malay lowland population, from which the Muslims of Mindanao and the upland tribal peoples of Luzon remained detached and separated. At the lower levels of administration, the Spanish built on traditional village organization by co-opting local leaders. This system of indirect ule helped create in a Filipino upper  class, called the principalia, who had local wealth, high status, and other privileges. This achieved an oligarchic system of local control. Among the most significant changes under Spanish rule was that the Filipino idea of public use and ownership of land was replaced with the concept of private ownership and the granting of titles on members of the principalia. The  Philippines  was not profitable as a colony, and a long war with the Dutch in the 17th century and intermittent conflict with the Muslims nearly bankrupted the colonial treasury. Colonial income derived mainly from entrepot  trade: The Manila Galleons sailing from Acapulco on the west coast of Mexico brought shipments of silver bullion and minted coin that were exchanged for  return  cargoes of Chinese goods. There was no direct  trade  with Spain. Decline of Spanish rule Spanish rule on the  Philippines  was briefly interrupted in 1762, when British troops invaded and occupied the islands as a result of Spains entry into the Seven Years War. The Treaty of Paris in 1763 brought back Spanish rule and the British left in 1764. The brief British occupation weakened Spains grip on power and sparked rebellions and demands for independence. In 1781, Governor-General Jose Basco y Vargas founded the Economic Society of Friends of the  Country. The  Philippines  by this time was administered directly from Spain. Developments in and out of the  country  helped to bring new ideas to the  Philippines. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 cut  travel time  to Spain. This prompted the rise of the ilustrados, an enlightened Filipino upper  class, since many young Filipinos were able to study in Europe. Enlightened by the Propaganda Movement to the injustices of the Spanish colonial  government  and the frailocracy, the ilustrados originally clamored for adequate representation to the Spanish Cortes and later for independence. Jose Rizal, the most celebrated intellectual and essential illustrado of the era, wrote the novels Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo, which greatly inspired the movement for independence. The Katipunan, a secret society whose primary principle was that of overthrowing Spanish rule in the  Philippines, was founded by Andres Bonifacio who became its Supremo (leader). The  Philippine  Revolution began in 1896. Rizal was concerned in the outbreak of the revolution and executed for treason in 1896. The Katipunan split into two groups, Magdiwang led by Andres Bonifacio and Magdalo led by Emilio Aguinaldo. Conflict between the two revolutionary leaders ended in the execution or assassination of Bonifacio by Aguinaldos soldiers. Aguinaldo agreed to a treaty with the Pact of Biak na Bato and Aguinaldo and his fellow revolutionaries were exiled to Hong Kong. It was the opposition to the power of the clergy that in large measure brought about the rising attitude for independence. Spanish injustices, prejudice, and economic oppressions fed the movement, which was greatly inspired by the brilliant writings of Jose Rizal. In 1896 revolution began in the province of Cavite, and after the execution of Rizal that December, it spread throughout the major islands. The Filipino leader, Emilio Aguinaldo, achieved considerable success before a peace was patched up with Spain. The peace was short-lived, however, for neither side honored its agreements, and a new revolution was made when the Spanish-American War broke out in 1898. The Spanish-American war started in 1898 after the USS Maine, sent to Cuba in connection with an attempt to arrange a peaceful resolution between Cuban independence ambitions and Spanish colonialism, was sunk in Havana harbor. After the U. S. naval victory led by Commodore George Dewey defeated the Spanish squadron at Manila Bay on May 1, 1898, the U. S. invited Aguinaldo to return to the Philippines, which he did on May 19, 1898, in the hope he would rally Filipinos against the Spanish colonial government. By the time U. S. land forces had arrived, the Filipinos had taken control of the entire island of Luzon, except for the walled city of Intramuros Manila, which they were besieging. On June 12, 1898, Aguinaldo declared the independence of the Philippines in Kawit, Cavite, establishing the First Philippine Republic under Asias first democratic constitution. Their dreams of independence were crushed when the Philippines were transferred from Spain to the United States in the Treaty of Paris (1898), which closed the Spanish-American War. Concurrently, a German squadron under Admiral Diedrichs arrived in Manila and declared that if the United States did not grab the Philippines as a colonial possession, Germany would. Since Spain and the U. S. ignored the Filipino representative, Felipe Agoncillo, during their negotiations in the Treaty of Paris, the Battle of Manila between Spain and the U. S. was alleged by some to be an attempt to exclude the Filipinos from the eventual occupation of Manila. Although there was substantial domestic opposition, the United States decided neither to return the Philippines to Spain, nor to allow Germany to take over the Philippines. Therefore, in addition to Guam and Puerto Rico, Spain was forced in the negotiations to hand over the Philippines to the U. S. in exchange for US$20,000,000. 00, which the U. S. later claimed to be a gift from Spain. The first Philippine Republic rebelled against the U. S. occupation, resulting in the Philippine-American War (1899–1913). The Spanish colonization of the Philippines began in earnest with the arrival on the shores of Cebu in April 1565 of an expeditionary force led by a minor Spanish colonial official from Mexico named Miguel Lopez de Legaspi. The new Spanish king Felipe II who had ascended the throne in 1556 gave a fresh impetus to the colonial ambitions of his father Carlos V by ordering the Viceroy of Mexico to make preparations for a new expedition. By 1564, the Royal Audiencia of Mexico gave the instructions that were to guide Legaspi’s mission to the Philippines. He was ordered to undertake the voyage for the discovery and possession of the so-called  Islas del Poniente  or Western Islands, which included the islands discovered by Magellan and named subsequently by Villalobos as  Felipinas, in honor of the Spanish King. Among his objectives in these lands were to search for spices, spread the Catholic faith and establish settlements where it might be fitting or advantageous to the crown and the propagation of the faith. He was provided with ships, supplies, weapons and men who were paid at the port where they were to depart. A foothold in Cebu: 1565-1569. With an initial fleet of four vessels and force of 200 soldiers, 150 sailors and five religious, Legaspi established an outpost in Cebu. During the next four years, his contact with the peninsula was maintained through the voyages of his ships which carried spices and dispatches to Mexico and Spain and returned with reinforcements and provisions. The fledgling colony survived on tribute collected from the native villages in Cebu and nearby islands, overcoming resistance with help from friendlier natives. However, there was a development that nearly spelled the doom of the colony – the Spaniards were being starved in Cebu. Rather than cooperate with them, the natives fled to the mountains, while those who remained simply refused to plant crops or trade with them. It came to a point when Legaspi’s men were reduced to eating rats and cats. In 1568, a Portuguese fleet dropped anchor in Cebu and laid siege on the settlement. The Portuguese were claiming that the islands lay within the demarcation line intended for Portugal by the Treaty of Zaragosa in 1529. But they were not able to break Spanish resolve to stay. They lifted the siege months later in January 1569 when they themselves ran out of provisions. Feeling vulnerable to the Portuguese in their present site, Legaspi decided to transfer the colony to Panay which abounded in food. The expedition moves to Panay – 1569. In 1569, the Spaniards crossed the sea to the island of Panay. There, they continued to levy tribute, their companies spread thinly in Panay and neighboring islands for the purpose. Among the  conquistadors  with Legaspi, the most celebrated were the  maistre de campo  Martin de Goiti and the young, dashing Juan Salcedo, brother of Felipe de Salcedo and grandson of Legaspi, who explored most of Luzon and whose love affair with Lakan Dula’s niece, Princess Candarapa, became the stuff of which legends were made. Salcedo left their base camp in Panay in late 1569 with a company of 40 soldiers. He reached Mindoro and its nearby islets, subduing the natives and plundering the rich village of Mamburao with the cutting-edge weapon of their day, the arquebus, and their usual auxiliaries of  Pintados, the Visayan natives allied with the Spaniards. Salcedo returned to Panay in May 1570, there to meet with Legaspi and the  maistre de campo  Goiti who had also arrived from another expedition to discuss the final leg of their odyssey in the islands – the conquest of Luzon and the thriving community of Manila which, with its 4,000 inhabitants, was under the rule of a Muslim noble named Rajah Soliman. On May 3, Goiti and Salcedo sailed out of Panay in two small ships with a hundred soldiers and accompanied by a fleet of 14 or 15 vessels of the  Pintados. They again passed through Mindoro which remained hostile and attacked its principal village whose inhabitants took a refuge behind walls mounted with some columns. But that was all their firepower. The natives were armed with badly tempered lances which could not penetrate a good coat of mail and daggers and arrows which the Spaniards dismissed as weapons of little value. Defeated, they became willing vassals of the Spaniards and paid tribute to them.